Mythic and Fairy

The feeling of impending danger as the story progresses is created for the reader in Joyce Carol Oates’ short story, Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?, through employing mythical elements to describe what is happening in the plot. Throughout the story, she uses several descriptions associated with the devil to serve as metaphors for the male character and what happens to Connie as also symbolic of the power of evil to tempt, conquer, and destroy the individual. Connie is the symbol of innocence. A young girl of fifteen, she is at the time of adolescence when young women begin to explore beyond their childhood lives and have a taste of how it is like to be a grown-up. She is also pretty, obsessed with mirrors and fussing with her looks. She is very unlike her plain older sister. Like most pretty girls her age who want excitement and not be â€Å"plain and steady† like the sister, Connie is giggly and eager for new things, unaware that danger lurks ready to exploit the fantasies of girls like her. She is like innocent Red Riding Hood who thinks the woods are nice, cozy places to travel through unaware of the wolf that lives within. After describing Connie and her family, the author introduces the technique of incorporating mythic element in the story by describing the drive-in restaurant as a â€Å"sacred building that loomed up out of the night to give them what haven and blessings they yearned for†¦the music was†¦like music at a church service†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚   The restaurant is a wholesome place for young people to meet and enjoy each other’s company. However, once Connie gets out of the restaurant towards the parking lot, she is not safe anymore. The devil lurks just outside sacred places, ready to tempt anyone who gets out of the temple and who is willing to do something naughty and fun. It is outside where Connie sees Arnold Friend for the first time although they would not be introduced to each other then as Connie is with Eddie, a wholesome boy her age whom she meets in the â€Å"sacred† restaurant. Right after that first meeting, the story begins its creepy quality as the author focuses on Arnold Friend and uses mythological and cultural associations with the devil to describe him.   One association is how Arnold Friend comes into the picture and how he looks like. His approach is announced by the â€Å"glow of slow-pulsed joy that seemed to rise mysteriously out of the music† which Connie was listening to at the time her parents and sister went to a barbecue party at her aunt’s one weekend, leaving her alone in the house. Rock and roll music, songs that are fast and hard, is associated with rebellious teenagers. Arnold Friend appears to her with a rock song in the background and looking like a rock star himself, just like the men in Connie’s fantasy. He had â€Å"fair brown hair†¦sideburns (that) gave him a fierce, embarrassed look†¦wore sunglasses†¦tight faded jeans stuffed into black, scuffed boots, a belt that pulled his waist in and showed how lean he was†¦the jaw and chin and cheeks slightly darkened because he hadn’t shaved†¦and the nose long and hawklike.† His features are sharp, his attire scruffy, and his bearing is very manly. He appeals to her fantasy to look appealing to her, thus making it easier to achieve his purpose. However, the skin around his eyes, which she notices when he takes off his glasses, was â€Å"like holes that were not in shadow but instead in light.† The eyes themselves were â€Å"like chips of broken glass that light in an amiable way.† They were devilish eyes, bright and unlike normal human eyes. When he speaks, it is in â€Å"a simple lilting voice, exactly as if he were reciting the words to a song.† He constantly smiles, too. His name is Arnold Friend, an obvious pun on â€Å"fiend†. He is obviously a bad guy with bad intentions but one who disguises them well. No other name is more trustworthy than one who has â€Å"Friend† for a family name. Arnold rides a golden jalopy. The shiny car symbolizes how the temptations of evil always come in a dazzling and attractive package. Connie herself is amused and fascinated with the car. He uses signals and secret codes. When the car comes to a stop by the front door, â€Å"the horn sounded four taps.† Beside Arnold Friend’s car are more codes: the numbers 33, 19, and 17. He also tells Connie at one point during their conversation that he has a sign, the letter X. Superstition, with its preoccupation with codes, signs and numbers, is connected with the dark side. Another association is the suggestion that Arnold Friend knows everything about Connie and is even telepathic. When he calls Connie by name, she is surprised since she never introduced herself at any time before he drives into their doorstep. He knows the names of her family members, all her friends from school, and tells her that he can see what is happening at Aunt Tillie’s barbecue party at the very moment that he is talking to her. Connie, of course, realizes the danger she is in although it takes some time to sink in because at first she thinks she can just waive Arnold off and he would simply leave her alone. She knows the clues to the kind of brewing trouble she is facing with Arnold when she recognizes â€Å"that sleepy dreamy smile that all the boys used to get across ideas they didn’t want to put into words†¦and the singsong way he talked, slightly mocking, kidding, but serious†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She knows the game of temptation and she tries to resist as hard as she could. Later on in the conversation, however, when Connie continues to resist and especially when she threatens him with calling the police, Arnold slowly takes off the mask he has put on to seduce her with sweetness and becomes forceful. Evil cannot keep on its sweet face when it realizes how it is on the verge of defeat. When it cannot get its way through sweet talk and wheedling, it would resort to the use of force and violence. Connie also recognizes the shift and she feels real panic and fear. Arnold makes it clear to her when he says, â€Å"the place where you came from ain’t there any more, and where you had in mind to go is cancelled out.† Of course, Connie could have called her parents or the police and it could have frightened Arnold off and leave her. After all, she is inside the house while he is locked outside. He cannot go in and it would have taken him some time to break the door, long enough for Connie to make the call. But like the devil, he plays with her weakness, confusion and fear at the moment. Arnold controls himself, knowing that it would work better if Connie comes out of her own will. He continues to seduce her with promises of a pleasurable experience. He promises to bring her â€Å"to a nice field, out in the country here† where Arnold will â€Å"have (his) arms tight around (her).† He tries to convince her that she is better than any of her family members and only he can understand her and her needs best. Towards the end of the story, Arnold keeps coaxing until Connie feels she is not herself anymore. The author describes it as an incantation. She is lured and hypnotized by his words. She has become an observer watching herself â€Å"put out her hand against the screen†¦push the door slowly open†¦moving out into the sunlight where Arnold Fiend waited.† She has given up herself to the devil. She has fallen from grace. She will never be the same again. Using descriptive elements associated with the mythical creature called the devil proves to be an effective technique in developing the story because it adds that extra element of scariness in the reading. The reader associate what is happening in the story with the extra imageries and it intensifies the suspense and anticipation of the obviously tragic ending of the female character. The ending is not only about Connie giving herself up to Arnold. It is also about how evil has tempted innocence, wins over her, and leads her to a terrible end. Work Cited Oates, Joyce Carol. Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?

Buddhist Nuns in Tibet

Our work aims to research Buddhist nunnery in Tibet. We are going to give information about Tibet in general and about peculiarities of Tibetan religion. We are going to pursue a case study of ordination to a nunnery. Buddhism is one of the world religions. Its believers live through in India, China, South-East Asia, Tibet and other countries. In old times inhabitants of Tibet didn’t practice Buddhism. Their folk religion called â€Å"mi-chos†, which meant the law of men. In after years it transformed to â€Å"bon-chos† – Bon religion. There some people who practice it in Modern Tibet and a handful of handful of Moslems..Nowadays Tibet is a poor Chinese province. It makes modern Tibetan Autonomous Republic. Besides of TAR Tibetan people live in the Chamdo region of Szechwan; some are found in Tsinghai and Kansu (Chang-tu Hu 66). Population carries on animal husbandry. Most of Tibetans consider themselves Buddhists Tibetan Buddhism is differs from the other national forms of this religion. It adapted to everyday life of inhabitants. As Guiseppe Tucci stated, â€Å"the entire spiritual life of the Tibetan is defined by a permanent attitude of defense, by a constant effort to appease and propitiate the powers whom he fears† (187).Tibetan Buddhism is heavily influenced by belief in supernatural. Tucci observed, that religion of Buddha in Tibet shot with a certain ambiguity: on the one side the fear of capricious spirits that was inherited by Lamaism from the country's original religions and, on the other, the conviction that man possesses the means to control these dark vengeful forces demanding propitiation. Magic, ritual, acts of piety, liberality towards monasteries and teachers, exorcism, liturgical technique, all come to his aid. And the human victim he was at the outset, at the mercy of a thousand invisible forces, is able to become their master.(73-74) On this basis scientists state there is a detached Tibetan form of Buddh ism. They called it Lamaism. Lamas were privileged class in Tibetan society. They operate in many sectors of daily life, and the monasteries are important social and economic centers of society. Basic concepts of Buddhism (karma, nirvana, transmigration, and reincarnation) are the same in Lamaism. There were three religious sects in Tibet: Nyingmapa, Kargyu, Sakya, and Gelugpa. The last one is known as the â€Å"Yellow School,† because monks wear yellow hats during ceremonies.It emerged in China since the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) and became the most influential school in Tibet since the 17th century. Gelugpa sect governed over the country until the Chinese re-exerted control over Tibet when head of â€Å"Yellow School† Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959. The Panchen Lama, who resided at Shigatse, has been elevated by the Chinese government to the position vacated by the Dalai Lama. Followers of the Panchen Lama used to claim that his spiritual powers rival those of the D alai Lama. Both of them were reincarnations of their predecessors.When either dies the priesthood have to decide in which newly born child he has been reincarnated. The reincarnation can happen anywhere, even in a peasant family, but such a family automatically becomes a member of the noble class. Our study of Tibetan nunnery will be incomplete without defining the role of monasteries. Monastery system is the basis of Lamaism. There were 6000 of Buddhist monasteries in Tibet until the Chinese invaded in 1950. Nowadays only six of them are restored (Kerr 37). Monasteries as landowners were authority under units of villages. Many of them used to house five thousand monks.Percentage of the monks composes from 20 to 33-1/3 percent of male population. According to Havnevik Hanna, there were also 27,000 nuns in 1959 (37). In Buddhist countries nuns are called by many different terms —bhik? un? i, don chee, sikkhamat, dasasilmata, jomo, mae chi, tila shin. According to Tibetan tradi tion celibate female Buddhist practitioners are known as ‘ani’. Karma Lekshe Tsomo states in her book, that many women in Tibet became ‘anis’ because nunnery provides an opportunity to get an education (201). Knowledge turned out to be an important theme in the history of many monastic communities.Owing to the isolation from the rest of the world, there was a lack of scientific knowledge in Tibet. Alexandra David-Neel notes, that many Tibetans believed that the earth was flat (26-29). The first radio station in Tibet started operating on January 1, 1959 (Chang-tu Hu 251). There were no primary schools prior to 1950. After the defeat of revolt against Chinese authority in the late fifties Tibetan diaspora began. In the sixties many young people from western countries began heading to the East searching for religious and philosophic alternatives to replace inadequacies they felt in their own cultures.Communication innovations of the eighties established close r connections among people. That’s why desire for knowledge and education affected even remote nunnery high up in the Himalayas. Karma Lekshe Tsomo narrates what was the monastery education to be: The monks and nuns had been recruited with promises of a life of study. Instead, they had to work day in and day out on the ‘gonpa's’ (settlement) construction. At night, they were too tired to concentrate on the lamas' teachings in Tibetan, an unfamiliar language†¦.In this culture, women only left home if they had specific, compelling reasons to do so. For many women, the quest for religious learning and an aversion to hard labor do not constitute compelling reasons. (204) If there is no senior monk in the monastery nuns live in the villages with their parents and work with them. They could gather together only several days on month to read few ‘pechas’ (religious texts). Those, who are not ordained just have to take five precepts: not to kill, steal, lie, commit sexual misconduct, or take intoxicants. Beijing notes that it’s not easy to be a teacher.To be appointed as a teacher of nuns, a monk must fulfill sixteen qualifications : respectability (not having incurred a defeat or partial defeat and being conscientious in that he has forsaken unwholesome deeds such as killing animals); steadfastness (twenty years of standing as a monk); learning (knowledge of the three collections of the scriptures); and thirteen qualities of helpfulness (the twelve explained in the first chapter of this work in the discussion of the qualifications of the monastic preceptor, plus not having previously been appointed as a nuns' teacher and then removed from that position).A monk with these qualifications is appointed to be the nuns' teacher within the boundary of his monastic community; qualified fellow monks perform the appropriate ceremony during the confession ceremony of the fifteenth of the lunar month (132). At first to be accepted as a monk it was enough to take refuge in front of the Buddha. Then special rules were instituted. To be a monk or a nun became a matter of maintaining regulations.Aspirant needs to assume vows. To enter the Buddhist community novice have to pass a long way. According to Beijing, vows of personal are of seven categories when distinguished according to the person: the [vows of the] monk (bhik? u), the nun (bhik? uni), the male novice (srama? era), the female novice (srama? erika), the layman practitioner (upasaka), the laywoman practitioner (upasi?ka), and the postulant nun (sik? amana) (122). In the original procedure for conferring monastic ordination, the aspirant became a monk without any complex ritual. The present-day procedure confers ordination with a considerable amount of ritual. Beijing recorded several ways in which persons became instantaneously ordained as monks and nuns. For example by accepting the eight severe precepts:To receive ordination from monks; to await announce ment of the proper date for the fortnightly confession from monks; to participate in the rainy season retreat near a place where monks are also in retreat; to attend the ceremony of lifting of restrictions (imposed during the rainy season retreat) in an assembly of both monks and nuns; to serve respectfully both monks and nuns if one has transgressed any of these eight precepts ; not to reveal the corrupted morals of monks; not to reproach a monk; to behave respectfully (prostrating and so forth) toward the community of monks, including prostrating before a newly ordained monk.(89) The ceremonies that confer the lay practitioner vows or the novice vows on a woman are essentially the same as those for a man, except for the aspirant being referred to as â€Å"the woman known as†¦ ,† instead of â€Å"the man known as†¦ ,† and the additional questions posed to the woman. The precepts of the postulant nun may be assumed at the age of eighteen in the case of one wh o has not been married and at the age of ten in the case of a woman who has been married. This ordination is conferred by a group of twelve nuns through a two-part ceremony including proposal.A female novice must receive the postulant nun's vows and observe them for two years before she can receive full ordination as a nun. The aspirant nun should give the vow for strict observance of celibacy. Beijing mentions that a woman cannot receive this vow if she has any of the following five obstacles: having both the male and female organ or having neither; menstruating continuously or having no menstruation; having no feeling in the vagina; and having been a nun before (178). The bestowal of this vow constitutes the intermediate part of the nun's ordination.In the first part, her request to become a nun is forwarded to the abbess with a report on whether she is free from obstacles to her ordination (not having received permission from family or husband, being pregnant, etc. ). The second part of the ceremony consists of her request for the vows of strict observance of celibacy, which is forwarded to the abbess along with a report confirming that she will abide by such a vow (determined from further questioning), and the final agreement by the abbess which signals the conferral of the vow.In the third part, she is fully ordained by a group of both monks and nuns. An extensive explanation of the rules for nuns concludes the ceremony. Then the full ordination is bestowed in the presence of group of nuns augmented by a group of ordaining monks. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the preceptor instructs the new nun on the twelve points of discipline, which include the eight defeating offenses, the eight severe precepts, and other rules.However, it should be mentioned that the traditions for the ordinations of the postulant and fully ordained nun were never introduced in Tibet. Once became a nun, female practitioner of Buddhism must observe three hundred and sixty-four ru les: not to commit the eight defeating offenses that constitute root downfalls, twenty partially defeating acts, thirty-three downfalls involving forfeiture, one hundred and eighty downfalls requiring confession alone, eleven downfalls to be individually confessed, and one hundred and twelve minor infractions.In Buddhism, vows are viewed in many ways, depending on the context of the discussion, but generally the ethical systems are designated as three sets of vows, as two sets of vows, or as one all-inclusive vow. The three sets of vows spoken of throughout all divisions of the Buddhist scriptures are those of personal liberation (pratimok? a), of meditative absorption (dhyana), and of the uncontaminated (anasrava) vows. These are essentially identical to the three forms of training on the Buddhist path: the development of morality, meditation, and wisdom.In fact, in order to gain the different types of enlightenment of their systems, proclaimers (Rravaka), solitary sages (pratyekab uddha), and bodhisattvas must forsake disturbing emotions and other obstacles on their paths by cultivating an uncontaminated discriminative awareness which is developed by training in wisdom. This discriminative awareness is grounded in mental quiescence achieved by training in meditation, and mental quiescence is developed on the basis of training in pure morality.The proclaimers' system speaks of two sets of ethics, each with three vows: the vows of a lay practitioner, novice, and monk (or nun); and the vows of body, speech, and mind. The three vows in the scriptures of the Universal Way (mahayana) refer to the processes of refraining from the unwholesome, of aiming at acquiring good qualities, and of working for the benefit of all living beings. These are also known as the three trainings, or ethics, of the bodhisattva. The tantras speak of four sets of ethics, each with three vows.The first set includes the commitments of awakening mind, the vows related to the creation phase, and those related to the completion phase. The second set includes the pledges of the Buddha's body, speech, and mind. The third set, as taught by the great adept Vitapada, consists in not conforming to the practice of accepting what is good and rejecting what is bad with respect to any physical, verbal, or mental action. The fourth set includes the vows of personal liberation, the bodhisattva commitments, and the pledges of the awareness holder (vidyadhara).The tantras also speak of two types of ethics: the common pledges received during the vase initiation of the five awarenesses (of the vase) and the stages of the initiation prior to these; and the uncommon ones received at the time of the irreversible vajra-master initiation. According to a different explanation, the two types of ethics in the tantras refer to the vows related to the creation phase and those related to the completion phase, also known as the outer and inner vows.Moreover, when the tantric adept assumes all the v ows of personal liberation, the bodhisattva commitments, and the tantric pledges, he or she maintains these ethics in both their outer and inner aspects. Works Cited Beijing, Chos ‘byung. The History of Buddhism in India and Tibet. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1986. David-Neel, Alexandra. â€Å"Edge of Tibet†, AATA 44:1 (January 1944): 26-29. Chang-tu Hu. China: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture. New Haven, CT: HRAF Press, 1960. Havnevik, Hanna. Tibetan Buddhist Nuns.History, Cultural Norms and Social Reality. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1989. Kerr, Blake. Sky burial : an eyewitness account of China's brutal crackdown in Tibet. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 1997. Shen, Tsung-lien and Liu, Shen-chi. Tibet and the Tibetans. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1977. Tucci, Guiseppe. The Religions of Tibet. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1980. Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. Innovative Buddhist Women: Swimming against the Stream. Richmond: Curzon Press Limited, 2000.

The Importance of the Proclamation of 1763

The Importance of the Proclamation of 1763 At the end of the French and Indian War (1756-1763), France gave much of the Ohio and Mississippi Valley along with Canada to the British. The American colonists were happy with this, hoping to expand into the new territory. In fact, many colonists purchased new land deeds or were granted them as part of their military service. However, their plans were disrupted when the British issued the Proclamation of 1763. Pontiacs Rebellion The stated purpose of the Proclamation was to reserve the lands west of the Appalachian mountains for Indians. As the British began the process of taking over their newly gained lands from the French, they encountered major problems with the Native Americans who lived there. Anti-British feelings ran high, and a number of groups of Native Americans such as the Algonquins, Delawares, Ottawas, Senecas, and Shawnees joined together to make war against the British. In May 1763, the Ottawa laid siege to Fort Detroit as other Native Americans arose to fight against British outposts throughout the Ohio River Valley. This was known as Pontiacs Rebellion after the Ottawa war leader who helped lead these frontier attacks.  By the end of the summer, thousands of British soldiers, settlers, and traders were killed before the British fought the Native Americans to a stalemate. Issuing the Proclamation of 1763 In order to avoid further wars and increase cooperation with the Native Americans, King George III  issued the Proclamation of 1763 on October 7th. The proclamation included many provisions. It annexed the French islands of Cape Breton and St. Johns. It also set up four imperial governments in Grenada, Quebec, and East and West Florida. Veterans of the French and Indian War were granted lands in those new areas. However, the point of contention for many colonists was  that  colonists were forbidden from settling west of the Appalachians or beyond the headlands of the rivers that eventually flowed into the Atlantic Ocean.  As the Proclamation itself stated:   And whereas it is ...essential to Our Interest and the Security of Our Colonies, that the several Nations...of Indians...who live under Our Protection should not be molested or disturbed...no Governor...in any of Our other Colonies or Plantations in America, [is allowed to]  grant Warrants of Survey, or pass Patents for any Lands beyond the Heads or Sources of any of the Rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean.... In addition, the British restricted Native American trade only to individuals licensed by parliament. We...require that no private Person do presume to make any Purchase from the said Indians of any Lands reserved to the said Indians.... The British would have power over the area including trade and westward expansion. Parliament sent thousands of troops to enforce the proclamation along the stated border.   Unhappiness Amongst  the Colonists The colonists were greatly upset by this proclamation. Many had bought up land claims in the now forbidden territories. Included in this number were  future important colonists  such as George Washington,  Benjamin Franklin, and the Lee family. There was a feeling that the king wanted to keep the settlers confined to the eastern seaboard.  Resentment also ran high over the restrictions placed on trade with the Native Americans. However, many individuals including George Washington felt that the measure was only temporary in order to ensure greater peace with the Native Americans. In fact, the Indian commissioners pushed forward a plan to increase the area allowed for settlement, but the crown never gave final approval to this plan. British soldiers attempted with limited success to make settlers in the new area leave and stop new settlers from crossing the border. Native American land was now being encroached upon again leading to new problems with the tribes. Parliament had committed up to 10,000 troops to be sent to the region, and as the issues grew, the British increased their presence by inhabiting former French frontier fort and constructing additional defensive works along the proclamation line. The costs of this increased presence and construction would result in increased taxes among  the colonists, eventually causing the discontent that would lead to the American Revolution. Source:   George Washington to William Crawford, September 21, 1767, Account Book 2.  George Washington to William Crawford, September 21, 1767, Account Book 2. Library of Congress, n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

Study of the Effect of Systems of Vulcanization on the Properties of Natural Rubber (RSS).

Study of the Effect of Systems of Vulcanization on the Properties of Natural Rubber (RSS). Free Online Research Papers Abstract: Dynamic vulcanization of natural rubber (RSS) was studied. The effect of methods of vulcanization, i.e. sulphur, sulphurless and peroxide on mechanical, rheological properties, thermal ageing and weathering tests were investigated. Swelling behavior of when using sulphur, sulphurless and peroxide were investigated. Accelerators of mercapto class gave medium scorch time they gave faster onset of cure than peroxide but slower than thiurams which gave the fastest onset of cure of accelerators as a whole, Viscosity of the compounds tended to increase from peroxide, sulphurless, to sulphur system. Vulcanizates with thiuram and a little sulphur showed higher tensile strength, elongation at break and lower modulus than sulphur system. The peroxide system was lower in tensile strength than both sulphur and sulphur-less system but had higher elasticity value more than other systems Thiuram cured accelerators with low sulphur gave better resistance to ageing than sulphur system. Perox ide vulcanizates gave excellent ageing characteristics. In toluene the resistance was weak for all systems however it showed the smallest ratio in peroxide system. Sulphur system showed the best resistance for processing oil (37) and peroxide system showed more resistivety than sulphur-less system Key words: rubber, mechanical properties, viscosity, swelling, ATR-FTIR, ageing 1. Introduction Vulcanization is an important stage for manufacturing rubber products, which deals with the formation of three dimensional networks. By this means, the overall elasticity and strength of rubber products could be achieved. In general, there are three main types of rubber vulcanization, namely, sulphur, sulphur-less and peroxide vulcanization. Sulphur vulcanization is the most popular system for general purpose diene rubbers (NR, IR, SBR, and BR). Owing to its low cost, easy availability, good processing and physical properties. By using accelerators, the efficiency of the rubber-sulphur reaction can be improved the activation energy of vulcanization decreases from 270 kJ/mol to 80-125 kJ/mol the number of sulphur atoms required to form each crosslink reduces from 40-50 to below 10 (1 and 2).Articles cured on the low-sulphur vulcanization have good resistance to ageing . It should be notted that that this property depends on the amount of free sulphur at the vulcanizate. The smaller this amount, the better the resistance to ageing. Very small proportion of sulphur don’t appreciably reduce the ageing resistance but they raise the degree of cross linkage very much and it is therefore customary to use some sulphur in conjunction with thiuram accelerator (3 and 4).Despite giving relatively low mechanical properties, the peroxide vulcanization is still used in the rubber products requiring high thermal resistance. Peroxides typically react with the rubber molecules via the hydrogen abstraction, leading to highly active sites on rubber molecules known as free radicals. The main key responsible for properties of the peroxide cured vulcanizates is, in general, the state of cure normally depends mainly on cure temperature (5). 2. Materials and methods Table (1):Details of materials: Material. Ingredients. Elastomer. Ribbed Smoked Sheets (RSS). Filler. High Abrasion Furnace Carbon black (HAF). Accelerators Tetra methyl thiuram disulphide (TMTD) Mercaptobenz thiazole (MBT). Dibenz thiazyl disulphide (MBTS). Dicumyl peroxide (DCP) Di-o-tolylguanidine(DOTG) Activators. Zinc oxide Stearic acid Softeners. Processing oil 37 Anti oxidant. Antioxidant irganox 1010. 2.1. Mixing and vulcanization procedures This was accomplished on a laboratory calender with two horizontal cylinders (200mm. diameter and working length of 400 mm) the revolving speed of the front slower cylinder was 16 r.p.m. and hind roll speed 20 r.p.m . The hollow cylinders were cooled by means of flushing water in order to regulate temperature not to exceed 60 ?C during different stages of mixing. The mix kept at room temperature for 24 h before testing. Table (2): Compounding ingredients incorporated in RSS during vulcanization according to different systems of vulcanization. Composition (phr) S S-less Peroxide RSS 100 100 100 Zinc oxide 5 5 5 Stearic acid 1 1 1 Antioxidantirganox1010 1 1 1 Carbon black (HAF) 45 45 45 Processing oil (37) 5 5 5 Sulphur 2.5 0.5 MBTS 1 MBT 1.5 TMTD 2.5 DOTG 1 DCP 3 2.2. Cure Characteristics Cure characteristics were studied using a Monsanto Moving Die Rheometer (Zwick 4308) according to ASTM D 2240-93. Samples (4 g) of the respective compounds were tested at the vulcanization temperature (150 ?C). The use of this curemeter and standardized values read from the curve is specified in ASTM D 2084. Some of these recommended values that are important to know for this study are ML: Minimum torque in N.m or lbf.in. MH: Maximum torque where curve plateaus are in N.m or lbf.in. tx: Minutes to x% of torque increase, tx = minutes for torque value equivalent to In rubber terminology, t90 is defined as â€Å"optimum cure time† ML + x(MH ? ML)/100. 2.3. Mooney Viscosity. Mooney viscometer is probably the most widely used method for measuring the quality of natural rubber (6). This viscometer was invented by Melvin Mooney, US Rubber Company, in the 1930s and is now used to measure the viscosity of both natural and synthetic rubber worldwide. This method consists of rotating a special serrated rotor while embedded in a rubber sample within a sealed, pressurized, serrated, temperature controlled cavity. The rotor turns at a constant rate of 2.0 revolutions min?1 (0.21 rad s?1) and the resulting torque is measured. This test imparts a shear rate of only 1 s?1 (7). The Mooney viscosity results are reported in arbitrary Mooney Units (MU) which is based on torque as defined by ISO 289 and ASTM D1646. The Mooney viscosity was determined by using a Monsanto automatic Mooney viscometer (MV 2000) at 120 ?C. The testing procedure was conducted according to the method described in ASTM D 1646-94. : 2.4. Vulcanization Process Rubber sheets (3 mm thick) were compression moulded at 150 ?C with force of 10 MPa using a hot press according to respective cure times, t90, determined with the (Zwick 4308). 2.5. Tensile Properties Dumb-bell-shaped samples were cut from the moulded sheets according to ASTM D 412. Tensile test were performed at a cross-head speed of 500 mm/min. Tensile testing was carried out with (universal testing material Zwick 1425) 2.6 Hardness Properties Samples of at least 12 mm thickness with flat surface were cut for hardness test. The measurement was according to ASTM D2240 using Durometer of Model 306L Type A. The unit of hardness is expressed in (A Shore). 2.7. Rebound Resilience Rebound resilience is a very basic form of dynamic test in which the test Piece is subjected to one half-cycle of deformation only. The strain is applied by impacting the test piece with an indentor which is free to rebound after the impact. Rebound resilience is defined as the ratio of the energy of the indentor after impact to its energy before impact expressed as a percentage and, hence, in the case where the indentor falls under gravity, is equal to the ratio of rebound height to the drop height, which is the measure square of velocities before and after impact and timing gates have been added to apparatus to enable automation of the data reading. The test is performed by (digi test Ruckprall 567 BJ.06). 2.8. Swelling Study Swelling was studied in toluene, benzene and processing oil 37; according to ASTM D 471-79. Cured test pieces of the compounds of dimension 30Ãâ€"5Ãâ€"2 mm were weighed using an electrical balance and this was taken to be the initial weight, M1(8). Calculation of the change in mass was as follows: Swelling percentage= [(M2?M1)/M1] Ãâ€"100 Where M1 is the initial mass of specimen (g) and M2 is the mass of specimen (g) after immersion. When a cross linked polymer is brought into contact with a solvent, the network absorbs a certain amount of liquid which depends strongly on the molecular weight of this liquid and the degree of cross linking of the polymer (9and 10).The mass and dimensions of the polymer will be changed due to the penetration of the solvent into the swollen specimen. Therefore, the swelling process may lead to deformation or destruction of the sample microstructure. May result in the absorption of the liquid, extraction of soluble constituents and chemical reaction. The volume change is a good general measure of the resistance of a rubber to a given liquid. A high degree of swelling indicates that the rubber is not suitable for use in that environment (11). 2.9. ATR-FTIR Measurements Were run with a JASCO instrument (FT/IR-6100typeA in the following conditions: wave number range: 600-4000 cm-1; aperture setting: 3.5mm mm; scanner velocity: 2.2 kHz; background scan time: 32 sec; sample scan time: 32 sec; resolution6 cm–1; beam splitter: KBr; angle of incident radiation: 45o. After recording, the ATR-FTIR spectra were converted into transmission FTIR spectra. The plate samples (6 x 6 mm) were simply posed on the sampling stage, in intimate contact with the optical element, a hemi cylindrical prism of SeZn (called Internal Reflection Element (IRE)). The incident radiation arrives onto the sample with a certain angle usually, between 30 and 60o) to the normal of the sample plane. Then, the reflected (beam is collected by a mirror, which focuses the reflected radiation onto the detector. 2.10. Aging of Rubber The effects of aging on rubber were studied in many researches to determine the time-dependent effects on NR compounds. The bulk of the research into the aging of rubber has concentrated on the oxidative effects. Oxidative effects occur when oxygen attacks the unsaturated bond along the backbone of the poly isoprene (12). Braden and Gent (13). have defined the characteristics of static crack growth due to ozone. They concluded the following: critical tearing energy is necessary for cracks to grow, crack length increases linearly with time, and the rate of crack growth is proportional to the ozone concentration. Lake and Lindley (14). expanded the work of Braden and Gent by examining the role of ozone in the cracking and fatigue of rubber. Lake (15). demonstrated that there is a threshold value for tearing energy below which all crack growth is attributable to ozone. LaCounta et al. (16). Studied tire rubber subject to aging due to multiple factors. They developed an outdoor acceler ated aging simulator, using a number of aging factors. The aging factors included heat, ozone, UV light, dynamic stretching, and aqueous solutions. 2.10. 1. Thermal Ageing The air ageing was conducted in an air oven (modelFC712, Blue M Electrical Co.) at various times at 90 ?C the aged samples were allowed to rest at room temperature for 16 h and the physical properties were then measured. 2.10. 2. Weathering Ageing Experiments were carried out in a modified Q-Panel QUV ® weathering device equipped with UVA-340 lamps. A partition of polycarbonate panels was placed down the centerline of the instrument and sealed with silicone RTV to isolate the two sides. The water chamber was sealed on one side to eliminate humidity. Copper coils cooled with flowing tap water were placed near the center wall of both sides. Two 4? muffin fans were mounted inside each half to circulate air. The fans were mounted in unused sample positions to bring in outside air and more cooling.) The wiring was modified to allow heating of the water chamber independently from the light cycle timer. By passing dry compressed air into the â€Å"dry† side, the relative humidity could be maintained at nearly 0%. By bubbling air though the water bath (maintained at 45  °C), the relative humidity could be maintained at about 45%.Samples with formulations shown in Table1were cut to 0.5? Ãâ€" 1.25? (1.3 Ãâ€" 3.2 cm) and adhered to the center portion of a 6? Ãâ€" 12? aluminum panel using silicone RTV in a single 3 Ãâ€" 9 array. In this series, the samples were exposed to U.V for 200 hours. The samples were subjected to rain, wind and humidity conditions in an alternative manner every 3 minutes for a half minute. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Rheometer properties Table (3): Data obtained by an oscillating disc rheometer for the vulcanization process using different accelerators and different system of vulcanization of RSS. Rheometer Properties S S-less Peroxide Scorch time(minute) 2.3 1.746 1.976 Optimum cure time 10.19 4.28 30 (minute) Rate cure index 12.67 39.46 3.56 (minute-1) t1( initiation time) 2.2 1.7 1.9 M max (Nm) 3.3 3.6 3.05 (maximum torque). M min (Nm) 0.4 0.9 0.885 (minimum torque). The lowest value of optimum cures of the three vulcanization systems (highest rate cure index) in the sulphur-less system, low sulphur vulcanization with thiuram accelerator gave a very good vulcanization plateau, the sulphur system of vulcanization using mercapto accelerators (semi ultra accelerator) gave a faster onset of cure than peroxide system which gave longer cure time and shorter induction time .The minimum torque, a measure of the stock viscosity, showed a slight increase with sulphur-less system this indicated that the processing ability of the compounds became a little more difficult, rubber was already cross-linked, and didn’t easily flow in the matrix, so would reduce the flow and consequently increased the torque 3.2 Viscosity Properties Table (4): Viscosity results according to different systems of vulcanization Viscosity Properties S S-less Peroxide MV (Mooney Viscosity) 36 31.5 29.9 LM (Lowest Mooney) 35.7 31.4 29.8 MAX.Mooney 74.2 58.5 54.9 (Maximum Mooney) MrLX Mooney 2.1 1.3 1 (Stress Relaxation) Table (4) represents the effect of accelerator type on Mooney viscosity Even though only a small amount of accelerator it noticeably influenced the Mooney viscosity of the compound. Obviously, the results revealed that the compound viscosity depends on the accelerator type, i.e., viscosity of the compound tended to increase from DCP, TMTD, MBTS to MBT. It could be observed that the effect of accelerator type on compound viscosity corresponds well with the melting point of the accelerators (the melting points of DCP, TMTD, MBTS and MBT are 38, 137,175 and 179.1  °C, respectively). The higher the melting point of the accelerator, the greater the Mooney viscosity of the compound In addition to the compound viscosity the torque increases for a few seconds to a maximum value (Vmax), then decreases very rapidly to reach a minimum value LM) in many cases, and lastly rises again at varying speeds to a plateau (VR or ML (1+4)120) reached after 2–4 min depending on the sample. 3.3. Physico-mechanical Properties Vulcanizates with thiuram and a little sulphur has a synergism effect giving a good cross linking. Thus having higher tensile strength, elongation at break and lower modulus than sulphur system. The peroxide system was lower in tensile strength than both sulphur and sulphur-less system but had higher elasticity value more than other systems Table (5): Physico-mechanical properties of RSS according to different system of vulcanization. Physico-mechanical S S-less Peroxide Properties Tensile strength 155 214 122 (Kg/cm2) Elongation at break % 718 816 540 Modulus at 200% 33 31 35 Hardness(shore A) 64.7 63.3 59.1 Elasticity% 35 37 39 Hardness showed a slight increase via vulcanization with sulphur system rather than vulcanization with thiuram system and the modulus value was higher in sulphur system than sulphur-less system which was higher than peroxide system. 3.4. Results of Equilibrium Swelling in Toluene, Benzene and processing oil. The obtained value of swelling in processing oil 37 showed that sulphur system gave the best resistance for oil and peroxide system showed more resistivety than sulphur-less system, in toluene and benzene peroxide system showed the best resistance Figure 1: Equilibrium swelling of RSS in toluene, benzene and processing oil 37 3.5. ATR-FTIR Measurement of RSS According to Different Systems ofVulcanization By changing the system ofvulcanization ,incorporation of different accelerators characteristic peaks appeared elucidating each system and difference between bonds formed via each system 3.5.1.ATR-FTIR Measurement of Sulphur System of RSS Figure 2: IR spectra of sulphur system of RSS Very weak signals for the samples range4000-3200cm-1 for the samples the vibrations responsible for bands in this region are O-H stretching organic acids and phenols it was obvious at peak 3703Cm-1. we assume that the activator (stearic acid) and the antioxidant ignorax1010 were completely incorporated in the polymer blends the same assumption should be considered in the case of the other polymer additives , the peak at 2926Cm-1 corresponded to C-H stretch, the C=O group of saturated aliphatic carboxylic acids was absorbed at 1687 Cm-1, the peak at 1606 Cm-1 due to symmetric ring stretch corresponded to aromatic accelerators, antioxidant and processing oil incorporated , peak at 1528 Cm-1 due to carboxylate ester., CH2 scissoring bend is represented by peak at 1459 Cm-1,C-N tertiary amine due to thiazole accelerators represented by peak at 1283 Cm-1, peak at 889 Cm-1 due to vinyl C-H bend, peak at 724 Cm-1 represented CH2S,Peak at 574Cm-1due to S-S stretching 3.5.2. ATR-FTIR Measurement of Sulphur- less System of RSS Figure 3: IR spectra of sulphur-less system of RSS Peak at 3297Cm-1 and Very weak signals for the samples range 4000-3300 Cm-1 vibrations responsible for bands in this region are O-H stretching organic acids, phenols and N-H stretch aromatic secondary amine due to incorporation of DOTG accelerator , the peak at 2926Cm-1 corresponds to C-H stretch the C=O group of saturated aliphatic carboxylic acids absorbed at 1748 Cm-1 , the peak at 1600 Cm-1 due to the symmetric ring stretch , peak at 1550 Cm-1 due to carboxylate ester., CH2 scissoring bend appeared at 1428 Cm-1,C-N tertiary amine due to incorporation of TMTD represented by peak at 1375 ,1283 Cm-1 , Peak at 1247 Cm-1 indicated DOTG aromatic secondary amine stretch , Peak at 1043Cm-1due to C-O ether linkage, peak at 878 Cm-1 due to vinyl C-H bend , Peak at 746 Cm-1 due to CH2 rocking, peak at 665 Cm-1 due to thio ether stretch, peak at 724 Cm-1 represented CH2S, Peak at 574 Cm-1 indicated S-S stretching. 3.5.3. ATR-FTIR Measurement of Peroxide System of RSS Figure 4: IR spectra of peroxide system of RSS Peak at 3254 Cm-1 and Very weak signals for the samples range 4000-3200 cm-1 responsible for bands in this region are O-H stretching organic acids and phenols the C=O group of saturated aliphatic carboxylic acids absorbed at 1750 Cm-1 the peak at 2926Cm-1 corresponded to C-H stretch, the peak at 1600 Cm-1 due to the symmetric ring stretch , peak at 1533 cm–1 due to carboxylate ester,CH2 scissoring bend is represented by peak at 1422 Cm-1, peak at 1262 Cm-1 due to aromatic ether , peak at 1031 Cm-1 due to C-O ether linkage, peak at 877 Cm-1 due to vinyl C-H bend , peak at 745 Cm-1 due to CH2 rocking , peak at 685 Cm-1 due to Cis C-H bend , here it was observed the lack of S-bonding characteristic peaks 3.6. Ageing Properties 3.6.1. Change in Physico-mechanical Properties of Aged Samples at 90 ?C (Geer Ageing) for Different Periods According to Different Systems of Vulcanization of RSS. Peroxide vulcanizates gave excellent ageing characteristics, thiuram cured accelerators with low sulphur had a better resistance to ageing than sulphur system. 3.6.1.1.Change in Tensile Strength (Kg/Cm2) Upon thermal ageing at 90 ?C, all the systems of vulcanization showed a further increase in tensile strength. And then decreased .This was due to the formation of additional crosslinks during thermal ageing Rubber samples are usually cured in industry only to 90%. The allowance of 10% is generally kept to accommodate the introduction of crosslinks in the matrix during service. When were subjected to thermal ageing at 90 ?C, the formation of additional crosslinks got accelerated. However, the tensile strength of all samples decreased due to the degradation of crosslinks. Figure 5: Effect of thermal ageing on tensile strength of RSS according to different systems of vulcanization 3.6.1.2. Change in Elongation at Break% The effects of different cross linking systems on elongation at break of un aged and aged samples are represented below. It had been found that the elongation at break of the vulcanisates decreased due to thermal ageing. The decrease in elongation at break could be attributed to the weakening of the matrix after thermal ageing. However, in peroxide system the increase in number of cross links may also contribute it. Figure 6: Effect of thermal ageing on elongation at break % of RSS according to different systems of vulcanization 3.6.1.3. Change in Modulus at 200% The modulus increased after ageing at 90 ?C. This was probably due to the formation of additional crosslinks. The modulus was found to increase with the periods of subjecting the samples to accelerated ageing till 250 hours. Figure 7: Effect of thermal ageing on modulus at 200 % of RSS according to different systems of vulcanization 3.6.1.4. Change in Hardness (Shore) The hardness was found to increase with the periods of subjecting the samples to accelerated ageing till 250 hours. Figure 8: Effect of thermal ageing on hardness of RSS according to different systems of vulcanization 3.6.1.5. Change in Elasticity % The elasticity was deteriorated for all the samples and the deterioration increased with increasing the period of subjection to accelerated ageing. Figure 9: Effect of thermal ageing on elasticity % of RSS according to different systems of vulcanization 3.6.2. Deterioration in Physico-mechanicalProperties of RSS After 200 Hours Using Xenon Apparatus (Weathering Test Results) It was found that peroxide system gave the best resistance of all systems used to U.V, radiation, artificial rain and hot air produced by xenon apparatus. The effects of different crosslinking systems on elongation at break of un aged and aged systems are represented in Table 6. It had been found that the tensile strength and elongation at break of the vulcanisates decreased due to weathering ageing. The decrease in elongation at break could be attributed to the weakening of the matrix. The modulus and hardness were found to increase with the periods of subjecting the samples to accelerated weathering test. The elasticity was deteriorated for all the samples Table (6): Deterioration effect due to subjecting RSS mixtures to weathering ageing Deterioration% S S-less peroxide Tensile strength (kg/cm2) 10.32 8.87 5.7 Elongation at break% 13.64 8.08 6.8 Modulus at 200% -14.2 -12.1 -9.6 Hardness(shore) -4.48 -4.2 -3.38 Elasticity% 8.5 5.1 3.5 (deterioration %) = (value before ageing – value after ageing) / value before ageing Ãâ€" 100 Conclusion Since the crosslinking are carbon-carbon bonds peroxide vulcanizates gave excellent ageing characteristics and high resilience, but their strength tear, and mechanical properties were inferior to sulphur and sulphurless vulcanizates the cure rate was slow and the induction periods was short. Thiuram cured accelerators with low sulphur have better resistance to ageing than sulphur system and good physico-mechanical properties that is characteristic of sulphurless crosslinking reactions. In toluene the resistance was very weak for all systems however it showed the smallest ratio in peroxide system. Sulphur system showed the best resistance for processing oil (37) and peroxide system showed more resistively than sulphurless system. The weathering test showed that deterioration is at least in peroxide system. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to all staff members of National Research Center, A.R.E for helpful suggestions. References (1) L. Bateman, C.G. Moore, M. Porter and B. Saville. In: L. Bateman, Editor, The chemistry and physics of rubber-like substances, Wiley, New York (1963) [Chapter 19]. (2) Moore, C.G. and M. PORTE (1962). ? THE STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF Natural Rubber Vulcanizates , Revenue General Caoutchouk,vol. 39, p 1768. (3) W. Hofmann, Vulcanization and vulcanizing agents. , Maclaren, London (1967). (4) B.H. To. Rubb. World 217 August (1998), p. 19. (5) R.L. Fan, Y. Zhang, F. Li, Y.X. Zhang, K. Sun and Y.Z. Fan. Polym. Test.20 (2001), p. 925 (6) Bristow GM, Westall B. Molecular weight distribution of natural rubber. Polymer, London, 8:609. (7) Brown RP. Guide to Rubber and Plastics Test Equipment, 3rd ed. Shawbury, RAPRA Technology, 1989. p. 22. (8) H. Ismail and S. Suzaimah. Polym. Testing 19 (2000), p. 879. (9) H.J. Cantow and R.H. Rschuster Polym. Bull. 8 (1982), p. 225. (10) A.N. Gent and G.L. Lui J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Phys. 29 (1991), p. 1313 (11) A. Tager, Physical Chemistry of Polymers. , Mir, Moscow (1972). (12) G.J. Lake, Aspects of fatigue and fracture of rubber, Prog. Rubber Technol. (1983), pp. 89–143. (13) B.J. LaCounta, J.M. Castroa and F. Ignatz-Hoover, Development of a service-simulating, accelerated aging test method for exterior tire rubber compounds, J. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 75 (2002), pp. 213–227 (14)G.J. Lake and P.B. Lindley, Role of ozone in dynamic cut growth of rubber, J. Appl. Sci.9(1965), pp. 231–254. [15] B. Amram, L. Bokobza, J.P. Queslel and L. Monnerie, Fourier-transform infrared dichroism study of molecular orientation in synthetic high cis-1,4-polyisoprene and in natural rubber, Polymer 27 (1986), pp. 877–882. [16] R.M. Fischer and W.D. Ketola, Error analysis and associated risks for accelerated weathering results. In: J.W. Martin, R.A. Ryntz and R.A. Dickie, Editors, Service life prediction: challenging the status quo, Federation of societies for coatings technology (2005), pp. 79–92. Research Papers on Study of the Effect of Systems of Vulcanization on the Properties of Natural Rubber (RSS).Riordan Manufacturing Production PlanBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfGenetic EngineeringOpen Architechture a white paperDefinition of Export QuotasIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductResearch Process Part One19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice

CDE website search and critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CDE website search and critique - Essay Example The author states that factors such as influx and transient mobility of students aren’t considered a factor; neither is the impact of ESL students. Due to such mobility, critical data is missing in the overall evaluation of this approach. His argument is sound and the resources support his paper. The author tries to be objective in his approach to the data; however, decides that due to multiple flaws, it’s not relevant as there are many important factors left out. He includes another article giving more specific data about who is responsible for student learning; perhaps this was his attempt at objectivity. He sides with the educator; he is also an educator with a job to protect. He doesn’t go into any details on how the evaluation could be more objectively done, or offer any alternatives to ways in which teacher evaluations could be more indicative of their efforts at education as opposed to the students’ performances. It is, indeed, a twofold approach wh ich provides the most objective picture and the fairest evaluation of teachers’ impact in the classroom; careful combination of teacher innovation and student readiness is involved. References Epstein, Marc. A Teacher Wonders: Can Grading Teachers Work? American Teacher. Fall 2008, p 14-17. American Federation of Teachers. Web. April 8, 2011.

What has gone wrong with Williams teams efforts and what should be Case Study - 1

What has gone wrong with Williams teams efforts and what should be done to ensure a successful outcome for the team - Case Study Example The group dynamic theory highlights on the social and psychological changes that come up in workplaces (David and Frank 2000). It helps in the comprehension of behaviours that come up due to team or group work in businesses. Communication styles play a significant role in the interpersonal relationships that emerge in workplaces. The bonds among workers contribute directly to the success or failure of the company. â€Å"†¦the success of an organization can depend on the levels of team work it employs† (Hartley & Bruckmann, 2008, p.311). Felix is a new employee who has social problems. He does not relate well with other employees and the company manager claims that his character is affecting the profits. Lack of teamwork has contributed to the failure of the company since it has not acquired the set goals and objectives. The main setback is the lack of communication skills and interpersonal relationships at the work place. Felix is competent, but â€Å"Developing sending skills meets only half the requirements for communicating effectively† (David & Frank, 2000, p. 147). He does not want to join groups and causal office conversation, is considered as a loner, and does want to share ideas with other employees. The employer considers his behaviour as a setback to the company because he cannot blend in with other employees. Teamwork requires that all members help each other to overcome problems that emerge in the business. â€Å"Groups and teams have assumed greater prominence in organisations in the past few decades†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Eunson, 2005, p. 566). According to the dynamic theory, it insists on teamwork among employees since interpersonal relationships help in the growth of the business. â€Å"Members of groups act together to achieve common aims or goals† (Eunson, 2005, p. 567). However, Felix does not socialize outside the workplace. He is seen not contributing to fellow employees debates while they are having a drink.

Does the term 'risk society' capture important features of recent Essay

Does the term 'risk society' capture important features of recent social changes - Essay Example al pollution, and new terrorism which shape the social changes such as increased social accountability, availability of information and most importantly a general paranoia within the society. ‘Risk can be defined in the risk society as a systematic way of dealing with hazards and insecurities induced and introduced by modernization itself’ (Beck 1992: 21). The most palpable point about risk is the main difference between risk and disaster. Risk does not necessarily mean disaster. Risk is actually the anticipation of disaster. Therefore it can be said that risks exist in an everlasting state of virtuality, and only become ‘relevant’ to the degree that they are likely. Risks are not ‘real’; they are in fact ‘becoming real’. ‘As soon as risks become real say an act of terrorism destroying the financial heart of New York - they cease to be risks and become catastrophes. Risks have already moved elsewhere: to the anticipation of further attacks, economic decline, or worldwide war.’ (Loon 2002) There has been a transformation in the awareness of risk by society. We have evolved to a society’ where what is significant is not whether the number or nature of risks have increased in their gravity, but that people feel that this is so and react accordingly. Obsessive worrying about ‘risk’ in contemporary social life has little to do with the actual frequency of life-threatening dangers. On the level of a single lifetime, i.e. in terms of life expectancy and level of freedom from grave disease, people in the modern societies are in a much more privileged position than were most in bygone eras. An imposing list follows of the ways in which the material security has been improved in modern societies; even so it is balanced by a list of fresh risks: terrorism, motor accidents, drugs, environmental pollution, etc. Both can be seen as results of the modernization. In terms of basic life security, nonetheless, the risk-reducing elements seem